WILBERFORCE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES (WJSS)
ISSN: 2504 – 9232
Volume 10, No. 2, November 2025
Pages 213-232
DOI: 10.36108/wjss/5202.01.0221
COGNITIVE AND NEURAL MECHANISMS OF LANGUAGE CONTROL IN EARLY AND LATE BILINGUALS: INSIGHTS FROM NEUROIMAGING AND BEHAVIOURAL DATA
Zainab Mohammed-Yusuf 1, Muritala Imam Suleiman2 & Abdulwahab Babatunde Abbas 3
1Department of Languages, English Unit, Al-Hikmah University, Ilorin ,
2Department of General Studies, College of Education, Lafiagi, Kwara State
3Department of Languages, English Unit, Al-Hikmah University , Ilorin
Abstract
This study investigates the cognitive and neural mechanisms of language control in early and late bilinguals, integrating behavioural, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and electroencephalography (EEG) evidence. Thirty bilingual adults participated, divided equally into early and late bilinguals based on age of acquisition. Behavioural data were obtained through Stroop, Flanker, and language-switching tasks, while neuroimaging focused on the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, left inferior frontal gyrus, and basal ganglia. EEG analyses targeted N200 and P300 components. Findings revealed that early bilinguals demonstrated significantly faster reaction times, reduced interference costs, and lower error rates than late bilinguals, particularly in switching tasks. fMRI results showed more focal recruitment of control-related regions in early bilinguals, whereas late bilinguals exhibited broader, less efficient activation patterns. EEG outcomes converged with these findings, as early bilinguals displayed shorter N200 latencies and larger P300 amplitudes, indicating more efficient conflict detection and resolution. Regression analyses further revealed that higher proficiency and dense code-switching contexts predicted enhanced behavioural performance and stronger connectivity between frontal control regions. These results support the Inhibitory Control Model, the Adaptive Control Hypothesis, and the Dynamic Restructuring Model, suggesting that age of acquisition, proficiency, and interactional context jointly shape bilingual language control. While the modest sample size and cross-sectional design limit causal interpretations, the study underscores the importance of early bilingual exposure and highlights the value of multimodal approaches in psycholinguistic research.
Keywords: bilingualism, language control, executive function, neuroimaging, cognitive inhibition